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Programming Languages

Notes on programming languages, organized by language family from low-level systems work up to applied / data-oriented use.

A C language logo marks the systems-programming pages built around C examples.

Figure: C remains the reference language for low-level memory, pointers, and Unix interfaces. Image: Wikimedia Commons, ElodinKaldwin, public domain text logo.

The ISO C++ logo marks pages on classes, templates, containers, and modern C++ idioms.

Figure: C++ extends systems programming with abstraction, generic code, and deterministic resource management. Image: Wikimedia Commons, Jeremy Kratz, public domain text logo.

The Python logo marks pages on scripting, testing, packaging, and scientific programming.

Figure: Python provides the practical environment for many CS, ML, and data examples. Image: Wikimedia Commons, Python Software Foundation, GPL-compatible free license; trademark terms apply.

The Rust logo marks pages on ownership, borrowing, traits, and safe systems programming.

Figure: Rust connects systems control with compile-time memory-safety guarantees. Image: Wikimedia Commons, Rust Foundation, CC BY 4.0.

The R logo marks pages on statistical computing, graphics, and data analysis.

Figure: R connects programming examples to statistical modeling and visualization workflows. Image: Wikimedia Commons, The R Foundation, CC BY-SA 4.0.

Languages​

  1. C — the systems language; types, pointers, memory, and the C standard library
  2. C++ — objects, templates, the STL, and modern C++ idioms (populated from Walter Savitch, Absolute C++)
  3. Rust — ownership, borrowing, lifetimes, and safe systems programming
  4. Java — the JVM, classes, collections, and concurrency
  5. Python — dynamic typing, idioms, the standard library, and the scientific stack
  6. R — vectors, data frames, the tidyverse, and statistical visualization

Why this order​

The progression goes from systems-level to applied:

  • C establishes the cost model — every other language is partially explained as a layer over it.
  • C++ adds abstraction (classes, templates, the STL) without giving up the cost model.
  • Rust keeps the cost model but enforces memory safety statically.
  • Java trades direct memory control for a managed runtime and rich libraries.
  • Python trades performance for ergonomics and a vast ecosystem.
  • R is specialized for statistical data analysis.

Pages within each language section have their own ordering — usually basics → types → control flow → data structures → idioms → advanced features.